Literary Monster

While Zahhak is certainly described as a monster physically, he is more viscerally described as a monster through his evil actions. This passage’s first depiction of Zahhak immediately constructs him as a terrifying and all-consuming ruler. Firdawsī paints a dark image of the world under Zahhak’s command: “From end to end the world was his command / the wise concealed themselves and their deeds, and devils achieved their heart’s desire / virtue was despised and magic applauded” (Firdawsī; Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 3). Not only is Zahhak himself described in a monstrous way, but so is the world in which Zahhak rules. There is a feeling of desperation and claustrophobia within Firdawsī’s words, as Zahhak’s terror is inescapable: “Zahhak trained them in magic and taught them evil ways / since he himself knew nothing but evil – murder, rapine, and the burning of cities” (Firdawsī, Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 3).

After having nightmares about the conditions of his rulership, Zahhak summons astrologers and magicians to interpret his dreams. The magicians learn that an unborn king, Feraydun, will threaten Zahhak’s throne. Out of fear of Zahhak’s reaction, none of the magician nor astrologers speak to Zahhak of their interpretations. However, the king threatens their lives and one brave magician speaks up. With this news, Zahhak faints and the magician flees, fearing for his life. This passage is important in constructing Zahhak’s monstrosity as it shows that no one is safe under his throne. Even doing your job, as was the magician, can threaten your safety. In this passage, Firdawsī explicitly claims Zahhak as a monster for the first time: “out of fear of Zahhak / the great men signed their names to that evil monster’s claims” (Firdawsī, Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 5).

Compared to the darkness of Zahhak’s rulership, Firdawsī describes Feraydun’s rule as a place of hope: “it shone in the night’s darkness like the sun, and the world took hope from its brilliance” (Firdawsī, Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 9). Feraydun is all too aware of Zahhak’s monstrosity, as he states: “If I can lay that monster beneath the earth / I shall wash the dust from your heads / I shall guide the world toward justice / remembering the name of God, whom all justice comes” (Firdawsī, Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 9). Firdawsī evidently constructs Feraydun’s character as morally good, as he is guided by God. Noteworthy, magic is not the root of evil in Shahnameh, and Firdawsī portrays it as a means to harness goodness and justice too. For example, Feraydun employs magic as well, as he is described as stopping a falling rock from killing him “by the means of a magic spell” (Firdawsī, Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 10).

The topic of religion is also an interesting phenomenon within the Shahnameh. The Shahnameh is written during a time in which Persia was ruled by both Islamic and Zoroastrianism leaders (Bolintineanu, 2021). Therefore, Zahhak’s allegiance with the devil was surely an attempt by Firdawsī to portray him as a ruler not bound by religious morals. As Medieval scholar, Edgar Francis (2011) notes, the permissibility of magic was a cause of concern during this era. Religious ideologies often condemned the use of magic. While religion was social and public, magic was a private matter, anti-social, and the complete opposite of religious morality (Francis, 2011). Firdawsī thus uses religious morals in juxtaposition to the actions of Zahhak. For example, Feraydun’s mother states “God has put a wise notion into my heart / I will leave the land of magicians” (Firdawsī, Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 7). On the other hand, “Zahhak, who delights in magic, tried to kill you” (Firdawsī, Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 7), and as Zahhak himself is quoted to say: “I must increase the size of my army / with men and demons / the two mixed together (Firdawsī, Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 8). Firdawsī’s construction of Zahhak as an anti-religious character, dedicated to demons and magic, is an attempt to highlight the darkness magic can yield.

Within the wider themes of the poem, both religion and astrology are also of importance, and both are used to guide characters throughout Shahnameh. Noble rulers are frequently endowed religious morals, which Firdawsī uses to compare respectable leaders to corrupt leaders. Sekander’s letters to other kings always begin by invoking God, “who is generous and just and bestows prosperity on those who merit it” (Firdawsī, Davis & Nafisi, 2016, pp. 206). Several times throughout the Shahnameh, characters reflect on the merit of going to war by calling on God. This is an interesting comparison as Firdawsī portrays Zahhak as one not bound by religious morals, and rather invokes wisdom through an array of mystical and dark entities: astrology, magic, and demons.

King Zahhak and Grendel: Monster or Human?

Interestingly, Zahhak can be interpreted as both a monstrous human, or a monster with humanistic tendencies. He isn’t a mythical creature in the same sense as a dragon or a werewolf, but he nonetheless portrays qualities strikingly similar to those of other medieval monsters. This construction of Zahhak has interesting parallels with Grendel, found in Beowulf. Similarities exist between these characters as they can be described as both monsters and humans. While they’re found in rather monstrous bodies (i.e: Zahhak’s shoulder snakes and Grendel’s claws), they portray humanistic characteristics that we have all experienced – envy, fear, and a will for vengeance. Similarly, both Grendel and Zahhak engage in monstrous behaviour due to themes of revenge and maintaining honour – which are inherently humanistic emotions and feelings. Both Grendel and Zahhak are capable of reigning terror and bringing death to the world, yet they are guided by emotions that all readers can relate to.